語言學(xué)的定義
語言學(xué)的研究范疇
幾對基本概念
語言的定義
語言的甄別特征
What is linguistics? 什么是語言學(xué)？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 語言學(xué)是對語言科學(xué)地進(jìn)行研究的學(xué)科。語言學(xué)所要研究的不是某一種特定的語言，而是人類所有語言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 語言學(xué)研究的范疇
Phonetics語音學(xué)\Phonology音系學(xué)\Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)\Syntax句法學(xué)\Semantics語義學(xué)\Pragmatics語用學(xué)\Sociolinguistics社會語言學(xué)\Psycholinguistics心理語言學(xué)\Applied linguistics應(yīng)用語言學(xué)
Prescriptive vs. descriptive 規(guī)定性與描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共時(shí)性與歷史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
?。?） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
?。?） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
?。?） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 語言與言語
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力與運(yùn)用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language? 什么是語言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 語言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）
Language is used for human communication
二、音系學(xué)
語言的聲音媒介
什么是語音學(xué)
發(fā)音器官
音標(biāo)……寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法
英語語音的分類
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
語音、音位、音位變體
音位對立、互補(bǔ)分部、最小對立
幾條音系規(guī)則
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人類語言交際的聲音稱為語音，這些數(shù)目有限的一組語音構(gòu)成了語言的聲音媒介。
Phonetics語音學(xué): is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學(xué)（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學(xué)and acoustic phonetics 聲學(xué)語音學(xué)
Organs of speech 發(fā)音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords （聲帶） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 濁音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 輔音。
單詞補(bǔ)充： 01） velum: The soft palate. 軟腭
02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，懸雍垂懸垂在軟腭中央的小的圓錐狀肉塊
03） larynx: n. 喉
04） vocal cord: 聲帶
05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔軟的組織層，覆蓋在表面或分割連接各種區(qū)域、結(jié)構(gòu)或動(dòng)植物器官
06） the soft palate: 軟腭
07） the hard palate: 硬腭
08） the teeth ridge: 齒齦
09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽顎骨處的牙床
10） the teeth: 牙齒
11） the lips: 上下唇
12） blade of tongue: 舌面
13） back of tongue: 舌根
14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.軟腭音的用舌頭后部掛觸或靠近軟腭清楚地發(fā)音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18） the upper front teeth: 上齒
19） the roof of the mouth: 上顎
20） the lower lip: 下唇
音標(biāo)……寬式和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法
International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（單元音&雙元音）
The constants 輔音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
用一個(gè)符號來表示一個(gè)語音的標(biāo)音方式叫做寬式標(biāo)音法，這種音標(biāo)法常見于詞典和教科書。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但實(shí)際上， 同一語音在不通的語音環(huán)境中的發(fā)音不盡相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音發(fā)音就不一樣。
在寬式標(biāo)音的基礎(chǔ)上， 再用變音符號表示同一語音在不同的語音環(huán)境下不同發(fā)音的標(biāo)音法叫做窄式標(biāo)音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英語語音的分類
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英語輔音分類
此主題相關(guān)圖片如下：
Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的張開程度
:the shape of the lips園唇與否
:length of the vowels元音的長度
此主題相關(guān)圖片如下：
Phonology 音系學(xué)
Phonology and phonetics
音系學(xué)和語音學(xué)
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
語音學(xué)研究的是人類所有語言的語音，旨在對語音進(jìn)行描述和分類。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
音系學(xué)研究的重點(diǎn)是特定語言的語音體系，語音表達(dá)意義作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
語音，音位，音位變體
Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
語音是語音學(xué)研究的單位， 是一個(gè)個(gè)具體的聲音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系學(xué)研究的單位，是抽象的概念， 每一個(gè)音位是一組語音特征的集合體，音位具有區(qū)別意義的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
音位變體是一個(gè)音位在特定的語音環(huán)境力的具體體現(xiàn)， 同一音位在不同語音環(huán)境里體現(xiàn)為不同的變體，也就是語音。
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位對立，互補(bǔ)分布，最小對立對
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出現(xiàn)在不同語音組合中的同一為止， 產(chǎn)生意義差別。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. And
最小對立對指出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個(gè)音之外其余都相同的兩個(gè)語音組合。
Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則
Sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則
Deletion rule 省略規(guī)則
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a when it occurs before a final nasal constant.
語素：語言最小的意義單位
語素的類型
復(fù)合詞的類型
復(fù)合詞的特征
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形態(tài)學(xué)研究單詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則， 有屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯形態(tài)學(xué)兩大分支。
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
語素：語言最小的意義單位。
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）
自由語素可以作為單詞獨(dú)立使用。
Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘著語素必須和其他語素結(jié)合成單詞
Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（詞綴）
1）Inflectional affixes （屈折詞綴）（inflectional morphemes）:
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2）Derivational affixes（派生詞綴） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix
An adjective suffix（形容詞后綴） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由詞根）
Morpheme（詞素）
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem（詞根和詞干）
1） Root 2） Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）
Individual （stem） desirable （stem）
dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）
divide（root, stem）
Affixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前綴@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3）'表示貶義'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5）'表示方向、態(tài)度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7）'表示時(shí)間、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8）'表示數(shù)量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9）'混雜'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后綴@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixes
Compounding復(fù)合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun noun（名詞＋名詞） —— handbook, sunshine
Adjective noun（形容詞＋名詞）——highway, deadline
Adjective noun -ed（形容詞＋名詞＋ed）——white-haired, red-eyed
Verb noun（動(dòng)詞＋名詞）——driveway, breakwater（擋水板）
Adverb noun（副詞＋名詞）——downtown, overburden
Noun verb（名詞＋動(dòng)詞）——toothpick, snowfall
Verb adverb（動(dòng)詞＋副詞）——follow-up, kick-off
Noun adjective（名詞＋形容詞）——world-famous, lifelong
-ing form noun（ing 名詞）——baking power, dining-room
聯(lián)系客服
